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These clusters were all active areas of scientific and philosophical research in equal measure up until the mid to late 1800s, when the sciences became more disciplinarily distinct and philosophy and science slowly parted ways. As the noted historian of science William Whewell famously put it, Darwin left on his voyage a naturalist and returned a scientist.

The current pandemic necessitates the reevaluation of the lazy rejection of biology by way of the biopolitical. Writer Ben Woodard reorients the history of biology in relation to continental philosophy and theory to give the biological sciences their proper weight. What any credible biophilosophy must do, he argues, is take very seriously the complexity of causality when it comes to the organic world and its imbrication in larger networks.